Afghanistan:
Environmental degradation in a fragile ecological setting 

Int. J Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 8 (2001) 279-289

Daud S. Saba
Geology Department, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai-1, India

Key words: Afghanistan, environment, degradation, environmental policy, ecosystem

SUMMARY

Currently, only 6% of the 15% of land in Afghanistan is usable and, if all the refugees were to return, problems of land ownership and adequacy of available land are inevitable. Natural forests have been severely degraded. Due to the nature of the topography and the arid climate, vast areas are subject to soil erosion. Loss of vegetation and soil humus have created ever more arid conditions. Abandoning the lands, poor reclamation schemes, overgrazing and destruction of vegetation for fuelwood have all caused desertification. The biological productivity of pastures has also deteriorated. This reduced productivity has affected livestock and has caused dramatic changes to the patterns of wildlife populations. Soil salinization and waterlogged lands are common. Farmland and pastures have been contaminated by landmines. Heavy concentrations of air-borne particulates and considerable amounts of transboundary pollutants from the Aral Sea have been found. Use of chemicals and the machinery of war have damaged the ecosystems.

Collection of plants and animals is unregulated and has resulted in excessive removal or extermination of some species endemic to the Hindu Kush. Uprooting of some plants and dynamite fishing are increasing and a disturbing number of fauna and flora are endangered. Agriculture is traditional, and natural resources are not being used in a sustainable way. A sound environmental strategy needs to be formulated and adopted.

Correspondence: D.S. Saba, 415 Driftwood Ave. #1009, Toronto ON M3N 2P7, Canada. e-mail: daudsaba@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION

While environmental concerns and sustainable development are on the agenda of the international community, including many developing countries, the war-ravaged country of Afghanistan is facing a devastating environmental crisis, unprecedented in its history. It is unfortunate that this tragedy has not as yet attracted the attention of a concerned international community.

Until the middle of the twentieth century, the inhabitants of Afghanistan maintained their almost natural and self-sufficient way of life and rarely absorbed the environmental side effects of industrialism that are found in other Third World countries. However, this does not mean that gradual change in natural habitats and ecosystems did not occur during these years. Nevertheless, the ecosystems in the territory of Afghanistan were never damaged to the extent of the deterioration that has occurred in the last quarter of the twentieth century. This damage has been created by uncontrolled and unlimited use of natural resources and was mainly triggered by the war in 1979. Soon after that war, the relatively balanced pre-war ecosystems began to degrade at an unprecedented rate and have continued on this destructive path. The result has been a seemingly uncontrollable environmental crisis that has not been addressed appropriately. This crisis has, in turn, contributed to immense environmental scarcity (Homer-Dixon, 1999) that has affected the lives of millions of people and endangered the continuity of a very ancient civilisation in this part of the globe.

We know little about the original ecosystems of Afghanistan. Until now, no environmental study has been carried out here to reveal the true extent of the crisis and to propose a solution. The lack of information on the quality of air, water, vegetation, farmland and other environmental factors could be attributed to the lack of relevant organisations or agencies in the country. Work done by international agencies is scant, and rarely addresses most of these issues. In this context, this paper can be considered a reconnaissance of a problem that has not yet been addressed and requires responsible research on environmental issues in Central Asia, and in Afghanistan in particular.

A PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE ECOSYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENT IN AFGHANISTAN

Archaeological studies reveal that, at least until 2000 BCE, the territory of today's Afghanistan was partially covered with deep cedar-rich forests (Ponting, 1990). Today's mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands and pastures are the backbone of the ecosystems and economy of the country. Historically, these environmental entities provided the inhabitants of Afghanistan with all life support necessities. In this setting, the components of these interwoven ecosystems are so interdependent that relatively minor damage to any of them would cause a chain of damage to follow, leading to degradation of the whole system that would destroy the supporting pillars of the economy and social structure of the country. Indeed, this is the current state of affairs in Afghanistan.

Generally speaking, until recently, environmental changes in Afghanistan were occurring at a very slow and gradual pace, with human activities resulting in changes visible over a time span of decades. Changes that were noticeable in the previous century; in the form of gradual changes to the land surface and topography, forest and vegetation cover, wildlife patterns, water channel systems, air quality, climatic changes, etc., remained obscure. Due to this gradual nature of the changes, their effects were not understandable and of concern to the inhabitants of this land.

However, the situation has changed, and these changes occurred during the recent war, revealing themselves in an explosive manner and in a very short time. It is true that the general public blame the war for deterioration in the health of people and animals, poor productivity of farmland and other resources, and finally the collapse of social and economic structures in the country. I believe that this notion substantially neglects the negative impact of environmental scarcity and its consequences that occurred in the past and which, because of their gradual nature, were not visible to the public. Through ignorance, people never tried to look for other causes for their failure to sustain society's peaceful and self-sufficient way of life. Consequently, they put the whole blame on the war, which they witnessed and participated in every day. The failure of Afghans to understand the extent of the crisis may be due to the fact that they have not paid as much attention to the environmental `surprise' (Rolling, 1986) of the land, compared to the overwhelming amount of attention paid to the war. Such ignorance by itself is a tragedy that has to be overcome.

Mountains and deserts

The Hindu Kush mountainous terrain, with little or no vegetation, typical of an arid region, occupies two thirds of the landscape of Afghanistan. Except for the Solaiman ranges to the south and southeast of the country that support dense vegetation due to intermittent precipitation from the Indian subcontinent's annual monsoons, the rest of the Hindu Kush, especially the north and northwestern extensions, support either sporadic vegetation of trees and shrubs or are bare, rocky mountains and hills with very sparse or no vegetation. It should be remembered that, in most of these valleys, the vegetation at low and medium altitudes provides the livelihood of the inhabitants, and in some cases is the only resource for the continuation of life. The vegetation plays a vital role in the overall health of society and its coexistence with other components of the ecosystem. For example, if we consider the role of pistachio (Pistacia vera), among hundreds of other plants that grow in the north and northwestern Hindu Kush, we find that it not only provides climatic and environmental stabilisation, but eases the life of thousands of families by providing them with a natural source of income to sustain their livelihoods. Until the beginning of the war in 1978, wild pistachio nut was one of the major exports of the Afghan economy, covering 4700 ha, with production of 3800 tons, but it is now reduced to a harvest area of 2700 ha, with production of 1600 ton in 1999 (FAOSTAT, 2000) (Figure 1).

One sixth of the remaining landscape is composed of deserts, which are very hostile environments, at least in the context of supporting human habitation. However, to some extent, this ecosystem supports the traditional nomadic way of life for the kuchis, who make up one fifth of the population of the country.

Farmlands and pastures

A further 15% of Afghanistan is composed of farmlands and pastures, on which the livelihood of the inhabitants depend. At present, only 6% of this usable agricultural land is under cultivation (Afghan Government Statistics, 1994). In the past 25 years, the area of agricultural land has drastically decreased. Although there are no statistics for agricultural productivity, if we relate the net loss of agricultural products to the loss of agricultural land, we can estimate an average annual loss of 3.5% of net agricultural products since 1978 (Department of State Dispatch, 1994). If we consider some of this decrease to be caused by temporary degradation of land or loss of harvest due to social turmoil, still we reach a loss of 30 to 35% of the prime agricultural land and pastures, either through abandonment or degradation. For example, farmlands in the province of Kabul have been lost due to degradation as a result of urban development. This has led to a drastic change of the previously dominating climatic and environmental factors in the area in the last 25 years. Even if we assume that this environmental degradation is not permanent, it is not easily reversible and will require a major internationally supported recovery programme to be implemented.

Most Afghan pasture lands are located on the lower slopes of the valleys and steppes but these have been heavily degraded by soil erosion and partial contamination with land mines. At present, some pastures are either abandoned or are extremely dangerous to use. As a result, especially in the past three years, the loss of this pasture has severely affected the lives of hundreds of thousands of nomads and semi-nomads that rely on it. This phenomenon is most serious in the western and northwestern provinces of Afghanistan, and has caused mass migration towards urban centres in Herat and Mazare-Sharif. It has put more than a million people at risk of starvation and has raised serious humanitarian concerns in the international agencies (Cohn, 2001).

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Afghanistan is a traditional agrarian society, with rural Afghans constituting well over 80% of the population before the Soviet invasion in 1979. Since 1979, agricultural products have decreased by 50% (US Bureau of the Census, 1988). To compensate for this loss, rural people have started to utilise the free and deregulated natural resources of their environment. The end result of this process is loss of natural forests and smuggling of the wood outside the country. This process has also resulted in floods and avalanches, which have caused more devastation. Once forest productivity had declined or was monopolised by warlords, the poor farmers turned to cultivation of opium as an alternative. The Afghan warlords also encouraged opium cultivation for the expanding international drug markets, resulting in further degradation of the land in previously very fertile parts of the country, namely Helmand and Kandahar provinces (Figure 2 and 3).

Figure 2 Satellite image of the Helmand Wadi taken in 1988, showing the salinization process in the Margeh area (courtesy J. F. Shroder, Univ. Nebraska, Omaha, USA)	Figure 3 Satellite image of the Helmand Wadi taken before 1978 (courtesy J. F. Shroder, Univ. Nebraska, Omaha, USA)

Many forested areas were burned during the war. Farmlands were also burned and degraded by heavy war machinery and chemical residues. Of 35 000 villages, 26 000 were destroyed and the restwere damaged (Afghan Government Statistics, 1994). This continuous process still takes its toll on the environment; e.g. in 1999 the province of Parwan, the most fertile region close to the capital Kabul, witnessed mass burning of crops and mulberry trees and other so-called natural obstacles to war. More than 300 000 inhabitants of this area were forceably evacuated from their residences while they were preparing for the autumn harvest. These kinds of war tactics are still common practice. For fighting purposes, all along the roads, vegetation was cut to the ground 

and uprooted. This may not seem too bad, but most highways in Afghanistan run along the narrow valleys that accommodate vegetation on their flanks in the form of narrow bands of trees and shrubs. In Nengarhar province, in the east, most of the land along the Kabul-Turkham highway that been used as rice paddies prior the to war, was turned into wasteland. In major urban centres such as Kabul, Herat and to a certain extent Kandahar and Mazare-Sharif, expansion of urban development is constantly eating up the most fertile lands that once fed these cities. It is ironic that, historically, most of these cities were established because of the surrounding fertile land. Here, green fields are disappearing from view in the passage of each day.

The greatest environmental damage has been imposed on agricultural land in the Kabul region through elimination of the fertile farmlands of Deb-Sabz and Char-Dehi districts. These areas once provided fresh vegetables for the whole of metropolitan Kabul and its surroundings. In the past 25 years, wetlands in the Kabul area have been drained. These ecosystems were always the most important factors in normalising the dry climate and feeding the groundwater system of the region. At the same time, these drained lands were handed over to developers or to the most hazardous industrial developments, namely the animal skin and intestine processing mills that spew hundreds of tons of chemicals and biological agents right at the edges of the city every day. This policy has changed the once beautiful wetlands of the southeast of Kabul city into the dirtiest chemical dumping grounds that holds enormous amounts of chemical and biological pollutants. The same area once held a small lake that was a resting ground for the graceful Siberian cranes on their annual migration to the Indian subcontinent, and a recreational hunting and fishing ground for Kabul residents.

There are strong indications that, in the past 22 years, the population in Afghanistan has grown by as much as 15%. If all the rural refugees return, numerous problems of land ownership and adequacy of arable land will arise (The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, 1993), a contingency that requires thorough understanding of the ecosystems and land management practices in order to avoid further degradation of the existing land through overuse. This is another serious problem that needs to be addressed by international development agencies so that they can be prepared for and provide adequate understanding of future developments of the rural infrastructure.

Soil erosion and land degradation

It is very difficult to provide an accurate account of how much of the land surface of the country faces problems of soil erosion. However, it is possible that, because of the topography of the landscape, arid climate, and barren nature of the land, more than 80% of could be subject to soil erosion. The land was severely folded by tectonic movement, and is characterized by steep slopes and deep valleys (Tapponnier et al.,1981) . Rainfall patterns over the country vary from year to year, and periods of heavy rain sweep away the porous, silty, friable loess soil that is common in most parts of Afghanistan (Shareq et al., 1980). The loess soil has well-developed vertical cracks and weak resistance to erosion. Furthermore, careless and ill-considered use of land, areas of open land for growing crops, reclamation on steep slopes, and over-utilization of bushes and grasses as fuelwood, all leave the fragile soils exposed to the action of wind and water, and are frequently the direct causes of serious erosion.

In the arid and semi-arid lands there are several provinces and regions, especially in the west, southwest, north, and central parts of the country, that are influenced by gradual desiccation, loss of vegetation and consequently humus in the soil, resulting in a looser, sandier soil structure and ever more arid conditions. In some cases, desertification is caused by abandoning fragile lands that need to be frequently cared for. Ironically, in other cases, desertification occurs through reclamation, overgrazing and destruction of vegetation for fuelwood, a trend that is becoming ever stronger. Due to degradation of grassland, the grasses have become shorter and sparser, the overall biological productivity has been reduced and the quality of the grasses has deteriorated (Hasanyar, 2000). All these conditions adversely affect livestock and create dramatic changes in the patterns of wildlife populations so that the balance of the sensitive mountain grassland ecosystem has, to some extent, been destroyed.

The groundwater beneath the alluvial, and in some places, delluvial deposits in the foothills is comparatively less affected. However, in places where irrigation has not been properly carried out to allow salts to be washed out, salinization of the soil has occurred, e.g. the Helmand Wadi experiences (see Figures 2 and 3). On the other hand, in some places in the north and eastern provinces the soil has become waterlogged and the vegetation and crops are starved of oxygen, which is another cause of reduction in land quality.

The worst nightmare of the Afghans working on their fields or taking their livestock to pastures is the presence of landmines. The presence of more than ten million landmines makes Afghanistan the world's most deadly minefield. According to a survey conducted by CIET International in 37 Afghan communities in 1994, 12% of all households surveyed were affected by landmines (Anderson et al.,1995). In the past three years, 3000 Afghans have been killed or maimed by mine explosions. Each month about seven people die or are maimed in Kabul by landmines. On average, the casualty rate since 1995 has been 50 people per week. Since 1995, about 225 km2 have been cleared of landmines and 1.6 million explosives, and 227,000 landmines have been neutralized, but about 350 km2 are still left to be cleared (York, 2001).

The degradation of farmland and pastures by landmines has forced millions of farmers and nomads to abandon their traditional agrarian activities. The danger of landmines is especially serious for nomads who, for thousands of years, have adopted and developed a peculiar way of life suitable to this terrain. Now, suddenly, they are facing a change in their habitat and environment, a tragedy that seems to put an end to their natural livelihood and unique culture.

Forests and deforestation

From historical records, we know that until 2000 years ago a large part of Afghanistan was covered with forest, and this fact is reflected in the great variety of species that still exist in the country. However, the natural forest cover has been dramatically reduced over the years, and currently accounts for only about 3% of the total. Moreover, the distribution of the forest is uneven, and most of the remaining woodland is presently found only in mountainous regions in the southeast and south.

The natural forests in Afghanistan are mainly of two types: (1) dense forests, mainly of oak, walnut and other species of nuts that grow in the southeast, and on the northern and northeastern slopes of the Sulaiman ranges; and (2) sparsely distributed short trees and shrubs on all other slopes of the Hindu Kush. The dense forests of the southeast cover only 2.7% of the country. These forests have their own peculiar wildlife, typical of each micro-ecosystem in the mountains they occupy.

The destruction of the forests to create agricultural land, logging, forest fires, plant disease and insect pests are all causes of the reduction in forest coverage. However, the most important factor in this destructive process is illegal logging and clear-cuttings by timber smugglers. According to a report in 1997, two and half million cubic feet of lumber were smuggled out of Afghanistan between 1995 and 1996, and sold in Pakistan with permission from the Pakistani Government of that time. However, the unofficial numbers for the amount of lumber smuggled into Pakistan from Afghanistan is estimated to be much higher than this (The News, 1997).

Afghanistan has one of the most interesting natural forests of pistachio nut in the world, located mainly in the savanna of the Badghis province, to the northwest of the country. Currently, no information is available on the status of this remote forest and the surrounding savanna that support the pistachio trees. Reports in 1998 claimed that unknown merchants from Pakistan were paying high sums for uprooting of these trees and for their roots. If true, this unethical practice will rob the poor inhabitants of the region of the economic benefits of this unique natural resource, while destroying the unique ecosystem. Comparing the amounts of pistachio that have been exported from Afghanistan in recent years with that of pre-war amounts, one can estimate that more than 50% of this forest must have been lost in the past 22 years. This savanna forest, if not preserved, could be lost forever, with its hundreds of endemic animal and plant species on which the livelihood of thousands of families depends.

Forests in Afghanistan occupy very fragile ecosystems and, once lost, they may never be recovered. It is obvious that the economic benefits of clear-cutting have overwhelmed most of the beneficiaries of this illegal industry, and have resulted in cutting most of the accessible areas of the mountain forests to the extent that their restoration may take more than a century of hard and systematic effort, if possible at all. In the north and southeast, most of those sparsely distributed short trees and shrubs have been cut for firewood and the mountains have lost their vegetation cover. Over the years, this practice in high altitudes has increased the of avalanches, killing many villagers; e.g. in the Salang valley in 1997, more than 80 lives were lost to avalanches directly resulting from the cutting of the vegetation on the slopes. Flood occurrences due to deforestation have increased dramatically, resulting in further soil erosion and degradation of farmlands. In 1997, in Fryab province, more than 20 lives were lost to sudden floods, 600 houses were destroyed, more than 7000 acres of farmland were stripped of their fertile soil cover, and 1900 cattle were washed away. In the same year, thousands of acres of farmland were flooded and destroyed in the Herat valley in western Afghanistan (Johnston, 1997).

POLLUTION

Although Afghanistan itself does not have enough industry to create considerable air pollution, smog and heavy concentrations of airborne particulates are common phenomenona in major cities such as Kabul. In the few industries that still function, the traditional fuel is coal, which creates air pollution and acid rain. However, because of the limited and small amount of industrial activity in the country at the moment, the latter does not pose a serious problem. Nevertheless, because of natural acidity in some areas and bare rock surfaces, the effects of acid rain should be studied in more detail. Currently, cross-boundary pollution seems to be more of a problem; since most of the neighbouring countries produce airborne pollution through sub-standard emission-producing industries. Presently, western and northwestern parts of Afghanistan receive enormous amounts of pollutants originating from the Aral sedimentary basin (Pearce,1994). Some industrial parks in Iran, Turkmenistan and

Uzbekistan are located close to the boundaries of Afghanistan. How much of the pesticides originating form these countries end up in the Afghan environment through air currents and rainfall, is another problem to be addressed.

Chemical weapons were used during the Afghan war with the Soviets, and caused severe damage to the environment and fragile ecosystems of the Hindu Kush. However, no quantitative or qualitative data exist on their long-term effects. The use of heavy war machinery and weapons has polluted *It soil in most of the areas of the country. Most recently, Pakistan's nuclear tests in the border areas of Afghanistan have created another uncounted ecological problem requiring future study.

DECLINING WILDLIFE IN THE HINDU KUSH

In Afghanistan, many factors such as loss of forest cover, soil erosion, desertification, pollution from transboundary air-borne particulates, agriculture and industry and the steady drainage of wetlands in the quest for more fertile arable land, have disturbed the natural environment of the wild animals and plants. Lakes, rivers, and marshes in a semi-arid country like Afghanistan have great influence on the animals, plants, and climatic conditions of their surroundings. The drainage of marshlands or small lakes has produced flat and temporarily fertile ground that has helped to fulfill the growing demands of urbanization and farming, but has imposed a hugely adverse burden on all wildlife.

In addition, Afghanistan has a culture in which the collection of plants, trapping of birds for the caged bird trade, and hunting of birds and animals are unregulated, resulting in excessive removal and even in some cases in extermination of the animal and plant species. Animal skins, including those of internationally protected or endangered species such as tigers, leopards, foxes and jackals, are traded daily in the markets all over the country. Recently, trade in birds of prey like eagles and falcons has become a common practice, endangering the overall existence of some of these species endemic to the Hindu Kush. Pleasure hunting of gazelles, mountain goats and other mammals by foreigners is another business that is unregulated and encouraged by warlords and profit seekers. Uprooting of some species of plants by root traders is also a serious threat to endemic plants.

Using explosives for fishing or so-called dynamite fishing is another trend that has become very popular during the past 22 years and is common practice all over the country. This not only endangers the population of endemic fish species of the mountain streams, but threatens the life and the existence of many other species of animals that live in or around the waters.

All these activities together contribute to the sharp decline in numbers of animals and plants and a contraction in their ranges, with the result that a disturbing number should be listed as endangered. For example, the Asiatic wild ass (Eauus hemionus), that was a common wild species in Badghis province a few decades ago, has almost disappeared from the landscape. Some wild plants that have commercial value are overexploited and disappearing at a very fast rate, and soon will become extinct if not protected. The most important task for the Afghans and concerned parties should be to immediately put an end to these irresponsible and rootless practices.

Taking a holistic view, wildlife in Afghanistan is endangered to an unprecedented extent; a problem that has to be addressed by international institutions and can no longer be ignored.

CONSERVATION AND NATURE PROTECTION

Historically, almost 7000 years ago, the forerunners of modern Afghans introduced and established sound agricultural practices using technologies that are still in use and valid today (Denniston, 1995). These people did not fully abandon their previous nomadic way of life that was adapted to their environment, but complemented it with the cultivating of crops. Moderate ways of exploiting natural resources and protecting their habitat were the key to their success in cultural sustainability. However, from the beginning of the advance of the Arab lifestyle and culture and later foreign invaders, the table was turned towards destruction of all environmental measures that have been in place, and the demise of the historical culture. Careless exploitation of the natural resources by foreign rulers who did not understood the fragility and sensitivity of this country, and their devastating wars, considerably exacerbated environmental problems.

At present, protecting the environment in an underdeveloped country like Afghanistan, with rugged topography and little usable land for agriculture and farming, is exceptionally important. It is necessary for the continuing development of agriculture and industrial output, for preserving the beauty of this part of the planet, and for the benefit and sustainability of future generations. Unfortunately, the environmental enlightenment of the past few decades does not seem to have had any impact on the way the governments of Afghanistan and even the people have looked after their environment. Consequently, almost nothing has been done to improve the environment or to take measures in the area of nature protection, conservation and environmental education. The past 22 years of war have induced extensive damage to the already degraded environment and fragile mountain ecosystems of the country. Activities that encourage the denuding of landscapes, deforesting mountains and rapid soil erosion have not been prohibited, but have been indirectly encouraged by the self-appointed rulers and warlords. Probably in this process, many endemic rare plants and animals have been lost without them ever being identified or documented. The outstanding problems are huge, and many species, some of which are endemic to the peculiar ecosystems of Afghanistan, have become extinct or hover on the brink of extinction.

LAND MANAGEMENT AND STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

So far, no practical and systematic work has been done in Afghanistan to manage the land. In constructing hydroelectric and other industrial projects, no environmental assessment or other measure has ever been considered. From the existing literature on Afghanistan, it is not clear if any measure has ever been taken to control soil erosion, flooding, deforestation, desertification or the protection of wetlands. In fact, wetlands always have been considered as enemies and to be drained wherever possible! No effort has been made to adjust cultivation, animal husbandry and forestry in the country according to the different conditions, traditions and needs of the people in different regions. Replanting of forests has been a rarity, occurring only in certain areas. No effort has been made to afforest steep slopes, which are unstable and liable to soil erosion even if cultivated. Farming methods have not been improved at all, and in many places, people still use the same technologies that their ancestors were using thousands of years ago. No help has been provided to the farmers who live in narrow valleys to terrace the slopes or enhance the existing ones in order to reduce erosion.

In the area of agriculture, few efforts have been made to conduct pilot projects to obtain the best possible results with the least damage to the environment. Dams and irrigation canals for managing the flow of water in some areas have been planned. However, none of the programmes has been seriously implemented to improve the existing land and prepare new land for use in agriculture or by pasture animals. Agricultural production has remained traditional, and closely tailored to the environmental conditions of the land, but in such a traditional technology, natural resources are not properly used in a sustainable system to take account of present changes. Traditionally, Afghanistan has produced organic products, but the balance is shifting towards the use of more unsafe chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides under commercial pressures from foreign agencies. Thus, the application of traditional biological and natural enemies of pests have been gradually dropped. DDT and BHC (benzene hexachloride) have been widely used until now. No study has been conducted to show the effects of these pesticides on the life of the people who have been exposed to them in past few decades. In this regard, importance has to be given to a national programme to assess the quality of pesticides, their persistence in the environment and safe methods for their use in a regulated manner, in order to achieve higher production with least environmental damage to sustainable agriculture.

An environmentally disastrous practice in Afghanistan has been the building of institutions, and factories in or close to residential areas in cities and towns, in sensitive and fragile ecosystems, in reservoir catchment areas, in scenic spots, historical sites, and areas of beautiful landscape that should be designated as nature reserves. The experiences of other countries in the developing world in the area of industrial development can provide some hope for a sustainable future, free of the worst pollution and environmental degradation. Afghanistan has the leverage to use these experiences to her advantage in order to establish a sound strategy to modernize the agricultural economy and ensure sustainable development for a prosperous future.

Until now, no effort has been made to adopt a strategy to reduce or, where possible, prevent environmental degradation in Afghanistan. In the past, industrial waste has never been processed or treated, and has always been disposed of in inappropriate and primitive ways. A potentially huge amount of solar energy has not been considered for energy production in a country with 70% of its days sunny! To overcome all these problems, a sound environmental strategy has to be adopted. Environmental quality evaluation and environmental impact assessment should become routine practice in establishing agricultural and industrial projects. An environmental monitoring agency with stations at national level needs to be put in place to record the levels of pollutants in the atmosphere and to check the quality of water and land. Once an environmental management procedure is established, then long-term programmes can be drawn up at local and national levels to sustain the environment and protect its fragile nature for future generations.

CONCLUSIONS

At present, Afghanistan is in a state of severe environmental crisis, unprecedented in its history. The problems described in this paper are not only destabilising the livelihood of the people but affecting the whole region. The main problems that Afghanistan faces today are those of soil erosion, deforestation, water and soil pollution and the epidemic spread of biological agents causing diseases. All of these, in turn, contribute to a decline in the numbers and variety of wildlife and the destruction of fragile ecosystems that could be extremely difficult to restore, if at all.

Protection of the natural vegetation and avoidance of overgrazing, especially in grassland areas, is very important. On a land that is already damaged, trees, bushes and grasses with strong resistance to the severe natural conditions should be grown from endemic or similar stock. Shelter belts have to be established around fragile grasslands and pastures to increase their vegetation cover and protect them from the effects of the constant wind and overgrazing. Special efforts should be extended to reforestation. Measures must be taken to make sure that forests that are cut down for commercial use are replanted immediately before their soil cover is washed away.

In southern and southwestern Afghanistan the efficient use of land, based on proper understanding of the environment, is vital in order to prevent the degradation of existing land. Saline soils in the west, southwest and north could be reclaimed through systematic studies and utilization of modern technologies. They could then be turned into fruit orchards or other suitable crop fields to compensate for the increase in the rural population and to prepare more usable land for refugees who are willing to return home, but currently have no incentive.

It should be mentioned that, prior to the war, a series of measures had been taken to protect rare plants and animals in Afghanistan. Thus, people are already familiar with these kinds of strategies. For example, in some provinces, e.g. Badghis, wild pistachio forests were under government protection until 1979. These kinds of traditional reserves have to be re-established for the protection of rare and medicinal plants, and their exploitation has to be regulated.

In order to protect the natural environment in Afghanistan and put its development on a sound and sustainable path, a series of laws and regulations has to be adopted. The cause of protecting nature and the environment has to be promoted by education, reflecting the limits of nature and ecosystems. At the same time, a public programme has to be adopted to raise awareness of how to protect and improve the environment. There are abundant resources of endemic and non-endemic wild plants and animals in Afghanistan that have to be studied systematically. The public has to be educated through national and local media on the importance of these species and their protection. An efficient management strategy has to be adopted to promote natural reserves and protect the valuable natural resources for the well-being of both present and future generations.

Rapidly expanding the regional and global economy challenges not only the people of Afghanistan but also the international community to adopt a strategy for this land in an attempt to keep the balance between resources, environment, population and economic development in the face of a dramatic increase in demand. This is an extremely important issue for sustainable development of a country that must start to develop all its resources from scratch. The people of Afghanistan are desperately in need of help to repair their natural habitats and preserve their fragile natural resources. The international community is morally obliged to give them a helping hand in order to revive this wounded piece of our common home, Earth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This is a review article, part of this study is based on the interviews and correspondence with many representatives of the rural communities in Afghanistan. I am thankful to all colleagues inside Afghanistan, who have provided me with their observations. I am also thankful to Dr S. Toora for his assistance in the preparation of the paper.

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